- 産業: Economy; Printing & publishing
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When the price of an asset rises far higher than can be explained by fundamentals, such as the income likely to derive from holding the asset. The Chicago Tribune of April 13th 1890, writing about the then mania in real-estate prices, described "men who bought property at prices they knew perfectly well were fictitious, but who were prepared to pay such prices simply because they knew that some still greater fool could be depended on to take the property off their hands and leave them with a profit". Such behavior is a feature of all bubbles. Famous bubbles include tulip mania in Holland during the 17th century, when the prices of tulip bulbs reached unheard of levels, and the South Sea Bubble in Britain a century later, although there have been many others since, including the dotcom bubble in internet company shares that burst in 2000. Economists argue about whether bubbles are the result of irrational crowd behavior (perhaps coupled with exploitation of the gullible masses by some savvy speculators) or, instead, are the result of rational decisions by people who have only limited information about the fundamental value of an asset and thus for whom it may be quite sensible to assume the market price is sound. Whatever their cause, bubbles do not last forever and often end not with a pop but with a crash.
Industry:Economy
1944 年，在第二次世界大战后设计的国际货币体系结构及成立国际货币基金组织和世界银行在新罕布什尔州的布雷顿森林举行会议。会议认为国际货币基金组织成员的汇率将任一侧的商定率盯住美元，有 1%的最大变化。可以调整率更大幅，只有当一国的国际收支平衡是在根本性失衡。在 1971 年 8 月经济困境和越南战争融资成本导致美国总统理查德 · 尼克松，要使美元贬值。这粉碎了信心在固定的汇率制度，由 1973年所有主要货币的自由浮动，价格主要由市场力量而不是政府菲亚特。
Industry:Economy
国际资本主义的工具。对环境的损害、 侵犯人权和全球化的反对者喜欢把他们的标语牌上的低贱的所有担忧的的焦点。美国的公司权力，因为大多数的世界上最著名的品牌，从到耐克、 可口可乐的象征是美国人。这是反对的理由。许多经济学家认为品牌一件好事，不过。一个品牌提供可靠性和质量的保证。消费者的信任是所有品牌价值的基础。所以自己品牌的公司有巨大的激励工作要保留这种信任。品牌有只在消费者有选择的值。外国品牌和国内品牌，在前共产主义和其他较贫穷的国家点在竞争中增加从哪个消费者增益的诞生的到来。因为一个强有力的品牌往往需要昂贵的广告和好的市场营销，它可以提高价格和进入壁垒。但不是到无法克服的水平： 品牌消退，口味的变化 ；如果不保持质量，既不是品牌。
Industry:Economy
人类决策的一种理论假设人们的行为理性，但只向他们提供信息的范围内。因为他们的信息可能会不足 （有界） 他们使作出的决定，似乎是不理性经济人 (经济人) 有关的传统理论。（请参阅行为经济学）。
Industry:Economy
Gentlemen prefer bonds, punned Andrew Mellon, an American tycoon. A bond is an interest-bearing security issued by governments, companies and some other organizations. Bonds are an alternative way for the issuer to raise capital to selling shares or taking out a bank loan. Like shares in listed companies, once they have been issued bonds may be traded on the open market. A bond's yield is the interest rate (or coupon) paid on the bond divided by the bond's market price. Bonds are regarded as a lower risk investment. Government bonds, in particular, are highly unlikely to miss their promised payments. Corporate bonds issued by blue-chip "investment grade" companies are also unlikely to default; this might not be the case with high-yield "junk" bonds issued by firms with less healthy financials. (See yield curve. )
Industry:Economy
An attempt to reduce the number of bank failures by tying a bank's capital adequacy ratio to the riskiness of the loans it makes. For instance, there is less chance of a loan to a government going bad than a loan to, say, an internet business, so the bank should not have to hold as much capital in reserve against the first loan as against the second. The first attempt to do this worldwide was by the Basel committee for international banking supervision in 1988. However, its system of judging the relative riskiness of different loans was crude. For instance, it penalized banks no more for making loans to a fly-by-night software company in Thailand than to Microsoft; no more for loans to South Korea, bailed out by the IMF in 1998, than to Switzerland. In 1998, "Basel 2" was proposed, using much more sophisticated risk classifications. However, controversy over these new classifications, and the cost to banks of administering the new approach, led to the introduction of Basel 2 being delayed until (at least) 2005.
Industry:Economy
支付商品或服务与其他商品或服务，而不用钱。这是钱的经常流行时质量低或不确定的或许是钱的由于高通胀或伪造，或当人们资产丰富但是现金-穷人，或高税收或由罪犯勒索时。然后，有点纳闷，1990 年代后期以物易物成为俄罗斯最受欢迎。
Industry:Economy
如何公司保持竞争 — — 现任优势的一个重要来源。有四个主要排序的障碍。* 一家公司可能拥有诸如油井的关键资源，或它可能有独家经营许可证，例如，对特定的无线电波长广播。* 一家大公司的规模经济与可能有显著的竞争优势，因为它可以产生一个大输出较低的成本比可以较小的潜在竞争对手。* 现任公司可能通过使其硬为潜在的投资者带来巨大的沉没的成本在广告的任何竞争对手必须匹配有效的竞争，但其中没有任何价值，如果尝试竞争应失败之类的事情上花费很多的钱。* 功能强大的企业可以通过提高出口成本，例如，通过使行业规范，雇用工人长期合约，使发射一个昂贵的过程阻碍条目。
Industry:Economy
当法院法官债务人不能使欠债权人的付款。破产人的处理方式可能会影响经济增长。如果破产会受到过于严厉的处罚，有可能成为企业家可能会劝阻考虑需要，使他们的思想的最大的金融风险。然而，太容易宣泄违约债务人可能阻止潜在债权人因为道德风险。美国的破产中的代码，特别是其第 11 章保护为其债权人的公司是对困难的借款人，使他们能够借更多的钱，让他们有时间来解决他们的问题特别是友好。其他一些国家迅速关闭破产的公司，并尝试通过卖掉它有任何资产偿还其债务。
Industry:Economy
